Lecture # 112:
Learning Disabilities, Continued

copyright 2008 Cheryl K. Hosken, BSN, MS Psych.

Objectives:
1. The student will know some of the causes of learning disabilities.
2. The student will understand how a severe discrepancy is determined.
3. The student will know adaptations to make in a learning disabled student's environment to help him learn more easily.
4. The student will understand the concept of directive learning.

Describing Characteristics
There is no such thing as a typical profile of students with learning disabilities. The most common characteristic is individual differences. Some students have strengths in math and nonverbal reasoning, but they may also have weaknesses in receptive and expressive language skills that lead to poor handwriting, spelling, and reading skills. Patricia has strong motor skills and receptive language, but she is weak in math and expressive language.

There are three broad groups of characteristics common to persons with learning disabilities: learning, behavioral, and social. We will focus in particular on learning characteristics because most of the research is devoted to the learning area.

Meditate Word By Word On These Verses:
Proverbs 31:8-9.

Learning Characteristics
Perhaps the most fundamental characteristic of students with learning disabilities is their lack of academic achievement, particularly in reading and written language. The students usually have normal or above normal intelligence and other strengths and skills. Patricia is a good athlete, has good social skills and a strong character. Her family is reliable and helpful to her. Yet, she cannot achieve basic academic skills that others her age achieve for their grade level and age.

Reading. This is also called dyslexia, which we discussed earlier.

Written language. Poor written language performance usually occurs in the areas of handwriting, spelling, text structure, sentence structure, and composition. Students may have difficulties in one of these areas or in a combination of them. In addition, students with difficulties in one area, such as composition, may have strengths in other areas such as handwriting, spelling, or other written language skills.

Many students with learning disabilities have difficulties in both reading and writing. This is not surprising because both are a function of language. This is referred to as a language learning disability. Some researchers think that students with these difficulties have a deficient phonological awareness, that is, they cannot recognize the sound segments in the spoken word. This ability is necessary to understand letter-sound correspondence. For example, a student needs to know how the letter "s" sounds and how it sounds in a word that he sees.

Question:
1. What is a language learning disabilty?

Math. Poor math performance includes the following:

Memory. Memory difficulties affect math and language performance alike.

Question:
2. What affects math and language performance?

Metacognition. This is the awareness of how one thinks and the monitoring of one's thinking. Metacognition involves two components: (1) the awareness of the skills and strategies needed to perform a task effectively and (2) the use of self regulatory mental mechanisms to complete a task such as planning how to solve a problem, evaluating the effectiveness of one's activities, checking the outcomes of the efforts, and solving difficulties that arise. For example, if you are writing a research paper, you plan what you are going to write and in what order you will present the subject. You think about the goal of the paper and if your efforts are directed to the goal. If you have difficulty writing about a certain concept, you must research it until you know it well and then use it in your research paper. Learning-disabled students have the following problems with metacognition:

Behavioral Characteristics
Students with learning disabilities often have behavioral problems, especially with attention to what is being said or read. These students cannot sit in their seats for long periods of time and carry out classroom tasks. It is difficult to know whether they develop these problems as a result of their frustration with learning tasks or because they are unable to pay attention. Not all learning-disabled students have these problems. Patricia has fairly good attention to tasks.

Social Characteristics
Students with learning disabilities may also have weaknesses in social skills. They may show the following problems:

Not all learning-disabled have these problems. Patricia has very good social skills. We can see that students with learning disabilities have many different characteristics and various combinations and strengths. When we work with them, our assessments must be very accurate about what they do and think as well as how they act around other classmates or family.

Question:
3. What type of behavioral problems might a student have who has difficulties reading and writing?
(Select the best answer.)
a) boredom.
b) fear and anger.
c) anxiety, nervousness, impatience.

Causes for Learning Disabilities
There is as much or more confusion about the causes of of learning disabilities as there are about the characteristics of learning disabilities. This is because the causes and the characteristics are the most unresolved parts of these disabilities. It is assumed that there is a neurological problem, but the neurological evidence is inconclusive. Patricia has never had a neurological assessment because she functions fairly well and she has no outward signs of neurological dysfunction. There are possibly four major causes of learning disabilities - genetic causes, poor educational experiences, developmental lags, or interacting influences.

Neurological Causes
Throughout the history of learning disabilities research, most researchers and educators have thought that learning disabilities result from a central nervous system dysfunction. The earliest research in learning disabilities can be traced back to studies of the learning processes of soldiers with brain injuries. Much of this early research confirmed that certain parts of the brain were responsible for certain learning behaviors. Neurological impairments or damage to certain parts of the brain resulted in learning problems.

The concept of information processing may help clarify the notion of central nervous system dysfunction. This concept is based on how we acquire, retain, and process information. Students differ in these areas. Some learn best through auditory channels, others use vision. There is sequential learning, learning in small amounts and learning large portions of material. Some things are learned through physical movements or at certain speeds - such as learning how to ride a bicycle. Students with disabilities do not have the strategies to process information as effectively as others of their same chronological age. Some students cannot sit in class and simultaneously listen and take accurate notes. Others cannot express thoughts on paper when they try to write a story or essay. All of these tasks involve processing information.

Secondary schools usually increase the demand for students to process large amounts of information quickly. The result is that students with learning disabilities fall behind their classmates. Most high school students with learning disabilities have about a fifth grade level in language and sixth grade level in math. Patricia may have only progressed to that level on standardized tests by the time she finishes high school.

New equipment called brain mapping helps to pinpoint deficiencies in the brain that may cause learning disabilities. When a person begins working on a task, the brain mapping marks the blood flow thought the various parts of the brain known to be responsible for specific learning processes. It is hoped that eventually this technology will help scientists discover why certain students have trouble learning.

Question:
4. Researchers think the central cause for learning disabillities is:
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
a) inability of the brain to process information normally.
b) inability of the brain to coordinate thinking processes.
c) inability to know what is happening in the brain.

Genetic Causes
Other researchers say there are genetic causes for learning disabilities. Research shows that learning disabilities have a familial history. In some families, all of the children are learning disabled. Some parents get counseling in an attempt to help them understand the chances of their children passing on learning disabilities.

Developmental Lag
Essentially, researchers place the cause of learning disabilities within the child. Each person's mental processes mature at different rates. Most often there is not a broad spectrum of mental maturity, but some children's mental processes are slower than their classmates' and they are unprepared for the academic tasks that are necessary for their grade in school. Most children with developmental lag are identified in elementary school. It has been noted that there are developmental differences between boys and girls. Differences in the developmental rates of boys and girls may result in identifying a greater number of boys with learning problems. We know that boys have higher incidence of special education - a ratio of 3:1.

Poor Educational Experiences
Some researchers say that poor teaching is the cause of learning disabilities. They think that educators blame students who have trouble learning and avoid admitting that the education system fails to teach them properly. There have been claims that poor education in the elementary grades causes high school students to fail academically.

Interactional Influences
Some researchers think that learning disabilities are the result of interaction of personal and sociological factors such as motivation, health, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. Students with learning disabilities are more likely to fail when factors such as family instability (parents divorcing), low socio-economic status, or family tragedy (serious illness or death) are part of their lives. Also, personal attributes such as motivation and sociological factors may be important factors to investigate when a child seems to have learning disabilities.

No one knows for sure what causes learning disabilities, but for parents with children who have learning disabilities, it is frustrating to be unable to find anything physically wrong. When a child falls behind his classmates early in school, he or she may be viewed as slow or less intelligent than others. Such a conclusion may be hard for parents to accept, especially when the child demonstrates good cognitive functioning skills in other settings, but still fails in school, he or she may be considered lazy. This view creates another layer of emotional pressure on the child, as well as frustration for the parents? who give up on finding a way to help the child learn.

Question:
5. It is assumed that learning disabilities are caused by:

What are Evaluation Procedures?
In the first part of this lecture we found that the first criterion for identifying a student with learning disabilities is the inclusionary criterion. This means that the student has a discrepancy between perceived ability and actual achievement. This discrepancy is determined through diagnostic assessment. In addition, the child must have an educational need that cannot be met without additional personal help.

We usually think of testing when we think of assessment and testing is an important tool for determining if the student has a learning disability. The student's broad cognitive (thinking) abilities are tested and his achievement in reading, math, and writing. From these two tests, the teacher can determine if there is a severe discrepancy between ability and achievement.

There are a number of standardized tests that measure cognitive abilities or intelligence. Other tests measure achievement and it is important to use those tests that are most relevant and current. It is also important to know the local school curriculum. The results of the tests will be more meaningful if the areas of academic achievement in the tests resemble the types of tasks and skills that the student has in school.

One student, Jay, has an intelligence score that is within the average range (90-110). His achievement, however, shows variability. He scored high in math and lower in reading and written language.

Determining A Discrepancy
To determine such a severe discrepancy, the educator compares the scores of ability and achievement. For example, here are Jay's scores:

  1. His verbal intelligence was 99. His reading achievement, which is comparable, was 79. That is a difference of 20 points.
  2. His performance intelligence score was 112 and mathematics achievement was also 112. There is no discrepancy here.
  3. His verbal intelligence score was 99 and written language achievement was 70. That is a 29-point discrepancy.

Schools usually determine what is a severe discrepancy and it is usually 22-24 points between the two tests. This is indicative of a learning disability. What does this mean for Jay? He has a severe discrepancy in written language, but not in reading or math. However, the teachers and educators in Jay's school should not rely only on his testing scores. His point difference in reading achievement is almost "severe", therefore, his teachers will monitor his scores on assignments that require reading and writing answers to questions.

Question:
6. A severe discrepancy is determined by comparing:
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
a) test scores of achievement and math.
b) test scores of ability and skills.
c) test scores of cognitive abilities and achievements.

Determining the Nature and Extent of Special Education
Demonstrating the need for additional educational services is the third criterion for identifying students with learning disabilities. Therefore, teachers also need to use information collected in the classroom. Curriculum assessments, and authentic assessments are better suited for monitoring the student's progress on academic tasks. Ecological assessment provides a way assessing the actual classroom where a student is taught. Information from these assessments allows educators to make more appropriate decisions regarding instruction for the child with learning disabilities.

Curriculum-Based Assessment
There are several types of curriculum-based assessments, but the common factor is each is the use of actual items from classroom instruction. For example, Patricia's teacher uses curriculum-based assessment for her spelling. Each week, Patricia is given a pretest of ten spelling words from science, social studies, and math - six new words and four from the previous week. After peer tutoring and other spelling instruction during the week, she is tested on the same list of words again. The number of previous words and new words mastered is scored and graphed for the special education teacher's analysis.

Curriculum-based assessment integrates continual assessment with instruction so teachers can see the progress a student is making from week to week. When the teacher looks at Patricia's scores, she sees that Patricia is making steady progress. However, when she is compared to the average student in her class, her rate of learning is about 50% slower than average. This type of assessment is to mark the student's progress over time. Although comparison with other students is obvious, that is not the main reason for this type of assessment.

Authentic Assessment
This type of an assessment also measures student achievement over time and is sometimes called performance achievement. It uses curriculum to demonstrate what the students know but not from paper and pencil tests. Performance assessments may include science projects, written computer programs, or drawings. Examples are collected over the school year and when the special education team meets, the results from the beginning of the year are compared with the results at the end of the year. For example, the teacher could show the type of book Patricia was reading at the beginning of the year with one she was reading at the end of the year.

Ecological Assessment
The classroom also needs to be assessed because it also affects academic work. Usually the special educator looks at the type of classroom (science or normal classroom), auditory, visual, and independent demands on the student. For example, science projects are often assigned to a small group of students who work on a project together. However, in a history class, the student will have to take notes, and his teacher may give multiple-choice examinations.

The special educator asks these questions:

This information is also shared with the special education team as they plan to help the learning disabled student. General educators who have students with learning disabilities use the following guidelines:

Match these terms with the examples below:
A. Ecological, - B. Authentic, - C. Curriculum.

7.1. The student builds a show box and puts an ant family in it to demonstrate how an ant colony is formed.
A, B, C.

7.2. The student is given review and new math problems and after practice, tested on his skills.
A, B, C.

7.3. The student is seated near the blackboard.
A, B, C.

Curriculum and Methods - What is Taught?
A specialized curriculum for learning disabled students usually does not exist. There are alternative courses for the various disabilities that are used in the special education room. However, most students are educated within the normal classroom. Students in the regular classroom are likely to receive tutorial assistance with regular subjects such as language or history. What teachers teach learning disabled students is based on the student's weaknesses and needs. The goals of the student's educational plan help the teacher decide how and what to teach.

In language, a teacher may teach the following to students:
* listening skills,
* vocabulary knowledge and usage,
* oral expression,
* syntax and grammar usage.

In reading, the teacher focuses on:
* decoding or phonics skills,
* reading comprehension and strategies for reading.

Written expression is helped by the following methods:
* handwriting skills,
* spelling,
* sentence, paragraph, or theme writing.

In math support, the teacher will teach:
* math vocabulary,
* basic computations,
* problem solving,
* fractions and decimals.

In high school, students may have books and worksheets that are lower reading ability. This is rare. Some history and literature books are on tape so that a student can listen and keep up with class work. If a student needs adapted materials, but can remain in the classroom with other students, the teacher can then gather information to help him through the course. In preparing adaptive materials, the following questions are asked:
* Is the content of the lesson too abstract? Can it be made clearer?
* Is the information well organized? Is not, how can it be re-organized and clarified?
* Is the content relevant? If not, how can the teacher justify teaching to the students?
* Is the content interesting? If not, how can it be made less boring?
* Is the information complex? If so, how can it be simplified for understanding?
* Is there too much information presented at one time? If so, how can the teacher promote recall of information?

Question:
8. What are adapted materials?

Methods
We will look at three types of instructional methods in this section: learning strategies, general adaptations, and computer technology. For students in high school, the content of learning changes. They need to work independently, listen and take notes from lectures, and express understanding in writing compositions and examinations. If students do not acquire the necessary skills in elementary school, they may experience failure and drop out of school. Therefore, academic supports are needed so that the student remains in school and receives a basic education.

Learning Strategies
This is a method of teaching children how to learn what is taught in a more effective manner. These skills complement the classroom curriculum by emphasizing learner independence, mastery of thinking skills, and increasing of motivation. Teachers try to help students analyze successfully so that they feel they have some control over their learning.

To help students with academic subjects there are:
* Acquisition of information (such as word identification strategy or paraphrasing),
* Storage or remembering of information (taking notes or listening skills),
* Expression and demonstration of understanding (sentence writing strategy, error monitoring of work, test-taking strategy).

Students practice the above strategies in small groups until they reach mastery through short, intensive lessons over several weeks. Finally they use these strategies successfully with course materials from their general classroom. One example that such students often use in reading is:
* read a paragraph,
* find the main idea of the paragraph and details,
* put the paragraph information in your own words.

Sometimes the teacher has to actually teach the students to first find the main idea in a paragraph. The main idea is not always the first sentence in the paragraph. When the student knows how to do this, he can begin using the above strategy.

Adaptations
There are instructional practices that enhance the academic success of learning-disabled students. Any or all of the following are appropriate and might be beneficial:
* preferential seating,
* providing multiple attempts on academic tasks,
* shortening assignments,
* giving tests orally,
* additional time to finish assignments,
* facilitating peer tutoring and cooperative learning.

Computer Technology
The school's budget, teacher training, and available software determine use of computers. Computer programs are effective in promoting academic skills such as problem solving. Computers can use pictures and simple commands to help a child. Spelling by the use of electronic speech synthesizers spell and speak the words a child needs to know. Word processors can help with writing skills. Math and fractions are made easier by pictures and use of the mouse.

Some of the advantages of computers include one-to-one individualized assistance, self-pacing, positive reinforcement, and motivation on practice activities. Through direct instruction (to be explained later), the performance gap between learning disabled and their peers may be reduced.

Question:
9. If you had a student or child whose writing ability was not good, how would you have him complete an assignment about history?

Collaboration
Participation in regular school is encouraged to help these students feel a part of normal society. The current trend is to have a special education teacher work with the classroom teacher to make an educational plan for the learning disabled students. Most students with mild learning disabilities spend most of the day in the normal classroom. Other students with more severe problems spend a small part of the day in a normal classroom and the rest of the day in a special education classroom within the school. The type of placement depends on the needs for the student: from day-long instruction in a special classroom to monitoring student progress in general education. The special education classroom is also where learning strategies are taught. Research has shown that whether the student is in the special education classroom or a regular classroom, results of education are uneven.

The special education teacher collaborates with the classroom teacher to help the student. Jay's social studies and English teachers planned and taught with the special education teacher daily. The teachers work together to modify work for Jay and other students. Sometimes, they were given more time for assignments. In the classroom these students were able to get immediate help when they needed it from the special education teacher.

Peer Tutoring
Peer tutoring is instruction of one student by another for the purposes of instruction and social support. Classrooms where the teacher does all the teaching does not give students opportunity to respond and demonstrate that they have acquired the information given them. So for a short time during the day, peer tutoring, or students learning from one another is done. Students can put their acquired knowledge into their own words and give examples of the concepts they learned. Often short quizzes are given after these sessions to monitor the children's learning.

Here is an example of peer tutoring for a learning disabled student:
A third grader, Jon is having trouble with multiplication facts and his teacher notices this by the results of his daily quizzes. His scores are below 50%. The teacher selected a classmate, Ellen, to help him. Ellen has shown that she likes to help others. Ellen also needs a little help with her multiplication facts, although her mastery is much higher than Jon's. Thus both students could benefit from more practice.

The teacher briefs Ellen on how to help Jon. She is given cards with the multiplication tables written on them, a sheet for writing answers to multiplication facts, and a short quiz after each practice. Jon and Ellen practice every other day for two weeks during lunch break. They spend 15 minutes reviewing. After each session, Ellen turns in the quiz results to Jon's answers and Jon reports his response to the session.

Twice a week, Jon has a quiz with the other students to monitor his learning progress. Any facts that he misses, the teacher notes and Jon and Ellen work on those during the week. After the tutoring, Jon's scores increased from 50% to 94%. Ellen's scores increased from 82% to 96%. Both students' accuracy helped with other mathematic concepts.

Families
Families play an important role in helping students with homework. They often sit with the student to make sure that he understands what he is doing. Here are some practical guidelines for parents:

Patricia's mother helps her every evening for about one hour. They do a variety of things such as reading, spelling, writing stories, or math problems. Patricia is able to tell her mother where she is having problems. They have also worked out a system of rewards and consequences. For example, Patricia may have to give up a favorite TV program if she does not have a plan for her study hour with her mother.

Question:
10. For the learning disabled child to feel accepted, he needs help from:
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
a) peers, family, special education teacher.
b) teacher, coach, peers.
c) teacher, special education teacher, parents.

Options for Teaching
The earliest research in the area of learning disabilities focused on descriptions of children with such disabilities, but did not result in changes in classroom practices. In the 1970s in the U.S. psycholinguistic and perceptual motor disorders were increased. In 1975 when legislation was passed for educating children with disabilities, practices moved away from the physical manifestations of learning disabilities to programs oriented to thinking and learning strategies. Today, programs for educating children with learning disabilities are as varied as the types of learning disabilities.

Early Intervention and Preschool Years
It is important to identify children with learning disabilities as early as possible so that their problems can be minimized or eliminated. It is also important not to label such children so that there are lower expectations for them. As you can imagine, early indicators of learning disabilities are very subtle and difficult to identify in the young child. Therefore, doctors and pre-school teachers identify clusters of problems such as delayed receptive and expressive language, attention problems, and visual or auditory perceptual problems (those that hinder a child from interpreting what he sees and hears). There are many preschools that are designed to help such children, especially in the transition from kindergarten to the first grade.

Teachers and parents find it hard to conclude if there is a learning disability in a very young child because testing is not done until the child is of school age. Therefore, parents with children who have language delays need to be alert to the possibility that their child may have a learning disability. In special schools that serve these children, the focus is on development of language in daily life. There are several activities that the child may participate in during the day - dramatic playtime, art, sharing time, snack time, music or story telling. Children are free to choose which activity they want and when they want it.

All the activities seek to enrich the child's language. During sharing time, the children are encouraged to ask one another questions so they can learn to listen attentively and answer correctly. Teachers make efforts to talk with shy children. The various areas of "play" make dialogue spontaneous. Staff also help children with appropriate social skills so children feel more comfortable talking to one another. Sometimes a speech therapist helps children who have continuing problems.

The results of one such program showed that 61% of children in the program went on to regular kindergarten without problems. The other 39% did not go directly into the regular education program, but were held in the special preschool for another year before going to regular school. It is hard to say for certain that these types of programs help the child since testing cannot easily be done. However, if language skills improve their chances of having a normal school life, it is better than doing nothing and needing help throughout school years.

Question:
11. What are the early indicators of learning disabilities?
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
a) delayed language.
b) aggressive behavior.
c) visual or auditory problems.
d) difficulty giving attention to commands or what others say.

Elementary Years
Most children with learning disabilities are identified in the elementary grades. You have already learned that most of these children spend at least part of every day in the regular classroom. There is an emphasis on teaching these children the same curriculum as their peers, but with modifications or adaptations. When children like Patricia need special help, they go to the special education room for instruction in math, spelling, written expression, and language. This is done by direct instructional method, which is a behavioral approach. This approach assumes that innate abilities cannot be altered, so teachers focus on working to improve academic and cognitive skills. Direct instruction targets weaknesses in specific skills such as spelling and decoding.

These programs consist of sequenced, highly structured, teacher directed lessons. Manuals for instruction are available for the teacher with students' directives, statements and correct responses. Research has shown in a number of studies that this approach is very effective. Patricia has direct instruction in spelling and reading skills for improvement. She meets with the teacher three days a week for thirty minutes. These lessons are fast-paced and Patricia receives feedback on her progress and praise when necessary.

Here is an example of directive learning. The student responses are in boldface print.

1. What word means "guard"? Signal given. Protect
  What part of speech is "protect"? Signal given. A Verb
  What is the noun that comes from "protect"? Signal given. Protection
These questions and responses are repeated until the student answers all the questions correctly.

2. I'll say some words. You tell me if each word is a noun or a verb.
  "Protection". Say it. Signal. Protection
  What part of speech? Signal. Noun
  "Protect" Say it. Signal. Protect
  What part of speech? Signal. Verb
  "Are protecting". Say it. Signal. Are protecting
  What part of speech? Signal. Verb
  "Protection". Say it. Signal. Protection
  What part of speech? Signal. Noun

Question:
12. Direct instruction method is a __________ approach to learning.

High School
The challenge for learning-disabled students is different than in grade school. In high school, the content of course work is emphasized rather than learning skills. The second challenge is to help these students transition to life outside of school when they graduate.

To help with learning content, teachers help students to organize and understand important parts of information. They use study guides, visual or graphic illustrations, and organization of material clearly on paper.

One of the most striking characteristics of learning-disabled is that they tend to stop making academic progress in the 10th grade. As these students get older and fall behind their peers academically, their failures and frustrations increase. It is at about the third year of high school that a significant number of them leave school.

In an effort to help these students, vocational counselors work with the students to assess their interests and skills for a future job. Along with the assessment, school programs help these students to work or observe a variety of jobs in the community that may be of interest to them. Some jobs require simple training at the job site; others require short training of 6-8 weeks to longer training of two years. Vocational programs to help these students get settled into work are important because they give the students opportunity to be independent and learn skills for a specific job that will help them in the future.

In the years following high school, the foundation for leisure, home, and recreational activities they learned in high school will have a large influence in their lives. For example, Jay participated in school activities such as sports, drama, and peer counseling other learning-disabled students. In the community, he was a part of the Boy Scouts and learned about city government and did projects to make his hometown more beautiful. From these activities, Jay's self-esteem and knowledge of the community around him increased. He made friends and had acquaintances with many people. With these connections, he feels more confident.

Most often learning-disabled people attend two-year community colleges, learn through apprenticeships, and get help through vocational rehabilitation counselors. If the learning-disabled person has friends who are willing to help him and give him support, he can overcome much. Also, he must not be afraid to use materials such as dictionaries, computers and spell checkers as part of his daily routine.

One such program for learning-disabled students who have finished high school or left high school early is called the Threshold Program. The program was started when a need was seen for better community transition and inclusion of young adults with severe learning disabilities. From the beginning the aim was to create a more mature person in the areas of work, social skills, and independent living. The program is thought of as a wheel with spokes coming out around it. The student is the center of the wheel and the spokes are all parts of a student's life - apartment living, work, leisure, etc.

The students in the program are enrolled in a two-year, non-degree program and considered full-time students. They live in a dormitory, eat in the college cafeteria, and take their courses in classrooms. There are academics and homework, but the emphasis is on practical work. The students get on-the-job training in two vocational jobs. Part of the program teaches them interviewing skills, social skills, and problem solving. The social skills learned in classes are reinforced in the job and in the dormitories. After finishing this program, the students get their own apartments and jobs so that they can integrate into the community.

Question:
13. What types of jobs can the average learning disabled student do?
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
a) apprenticeship jobs: plumbing, building, mechanical.
b) those that require 1-2 years of training.
c) a professional job such as accounting.

What happened to Patricia?
She was able to finish her high school although her grades were not good enough to enroll in university; she was given a basketball scholarship to a two-year community college in her hometown. Her experience in sports and social abilities helped her to make the transition to a different educational institution.

Before leaving high school, she had a vocational assessment. The outcome of the testing showed that she liked working with people and sports. As she looked at courses with the vocational counselor, she thought that perhaps psychology and sociology would be a good alternative for her. She attended her first year and had some educational support from the student assistance center to help her learn some of the psychological concepts that were difficult for her. When she finished the first year, she decided that she liked sports better and focused more on physical education. Meantime, she played basketball for her school and helped the team win a championship.

She graduated from the two-year college and was offered a job as an assistant coach of another two-year college. She also wanted to help others, so she went to the local neighborhood association and volunteered to teach basketball to teenagers who were at risk for drug and alcohol addiction. Monday nights, she is in her old high school gym teaching teens to become team members and increase their skill in basketball. After all those years of starting her mother's car, she now starts her own car every morning when she goes to work!