copyright 2008 Cheryl K. Hosken, BSN, MS Psych.
The life of the person with a disability has never been an easy one. In most primitive early cultures, such a person simply died. Sometimes these people were by their disability considered to be special and if they lived, were given special rank and thought to have special powers. Most often, however, primitive tribes needed warriors for defense or hunting. People with disabilities could not contribute and were often left to die.
In Egypt, if a person had a disease or disability, he was out of harmony with the universe. The practitioner of medicine tried to discern what caused the disease or disability. There were three main classes of healers who used prayers, incantations, medicines, and minor surgery to cure.
In Greece, spiritual powers were thought to bring physical ailments. There were itinerant physicians who offered prayers and sacrifices for the ill. Later, Hippocrates made medicine a rational, systematic study of a person's illness. He has been named the father of medicine.
When we look at the Hebrews, their ideas were considerably different than their early neighbors. God was their creator who existed outside of nature, and all evil in the Old Testament was seen as a result of the Fall. Disease on a national and personal level was seen as a consequence of sin. This is especially noted according to the covenant they had with God. Unfaithfulness to Him brought disease, pestilence, and famine.
In the Old Testament, illness was not seen in its physical nature, but in spiritual and moral dimensions. That is, if one breaks God's law, he may become ill. The priests of the Old Testament were used to enforce the laws concerning personal and social hygiene and in diagnosing a variety of skin diseases - especially leprosy. (Encyclopedia of Religion)
We read in the Acts of the Apostles about accounts of the Apostles and their acts of healing and care of the elderly. In Acts 3:1-11, Peter, through the Holy Spirit, heals the man crippled from birth at the temple. These were no small healings, for in Acts 5:12, it is recorded that the apostles performed many miraculous signs and wonders among the people. People brought the sick just to have the shadow of Peter fall on them so they might be healed. The conclusion of this event states, "and all of them were healed." Since the work of Peter and the rest of the apostles was great, in chapter 6, seven men were chosen to care for the widows of the new church. Stephen was the leader of the group.
In Acts 19:11, when Paul was in Ephesus, we read, "God did extraordinary miracles through Paul, so that even handkerchiefs and aprons that touched him were taken to the sick, and their illnesses were cured and evil spirits left them."
James wrote to the Early Church that had been scattered "among the nations" after Jesus' death. James was a practical man, probably the brother of Jesus. He urges the believers to have faith with deeds in James 2:14-26. He states that faith without deeds is dead and believers can show their faith by caring for the physical needs of those in the church. It seems there was a simple church order by the time of A.D. 50 or 60 when the letter was written. In chapter 5:13-17, he gives specific instructions for the man who is sick. The elders should come to that person to pray over him and anoint him with oil.
In the third and fourth centuries A.D., there were certain holy men (St. Anthony, Jerome, Ambrose - a bishop in Milan) who were credited with miracles of healing of disabilities. Their bones, tombs, or clothing were thought to bring healing. From these practices, pilgrims and disabled tried to get these objects in order to be healed. This practice was even sanctioned by Ambrose and he brought the sacred objects into the cathedral beneath the altar.
It was also in the third and fourth centuries that women were ordained in the Early Church by the laying on of hands. They were commissioned to anoint the ill and visit the sick. They also shared the message of good news to those women who were confined to the home because of debilitating illnesses.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the institution of clergy-physicians was begun. The fathers of the church frequently studied medicine along with their general and spiritual education. These priest-physicians served the court and wrote textbooks on medicine. As a result of this type of education, hospitals were established. The most famous of these early hospitals was Basilias established by St. Basil in Caesarea of Cappadocia. St. John Chrysostom established several of them in Constantinople. Usually, the hospitals contained a house for the elderly, for disabled, for contagious disease, acute disease, and travelers. Oftentimes, a church or cathedral was part of the group of buildings where people came for healing and rest.
By the time of Justinian, physicians were part of the imperial order to serve in hospitals (527-565 A.D.). By the end of the 7th century, the hospitals were forced into a lesser role by the invasions of the barbarian tribes. As a result of the decreased influence of hospitals, people returned to the church and the healing powers of the relics of the saints. Acceptance of physicians by the Church decreased, but the medical and spiritual healers often complimented one another. Sometimes the medical treatment center and the shrines of healing saints were located together. It was also at this time, 416 A.D., that oil was consecrated for use in healing. The type of healing described above was in effect until the end of the twelfth century.
Constantinople was destroyed in the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Existing hospitals after this time became secular - having no connection with the church. They became schools of medicine for the training of physicians. The shrines of healing continued, and the ill and disabled came to them for free medical healing. By 1410, Symeon, Archbishop of Thessalonica wrote the liturgical service for healing and for use in the Orthodox Church.
Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The Turks decided that the religious leaders among the various peoples of the empire were also the ethnic leaders. The Orthodox Church patriarch was the leader in all things pertaining to the subjected Orthodox believers. This arrangement was not a happy one for all Orthodox, but all these peoples survived 400 years of Turkish rule under the protection of the Orthodox patriarch.
Under the Turkish system, new, but fewer and smaller hospitals were founded. The most important was the Baloulke Hospital, which remains to this day. The church also established medical institutions for the care of the mentally ill and leprosy.
Under the Turks, Christians had little opportunity to get an education. Sometimes secret schools were held in the churches. During the 1600s, Italy became the center of learning for Orthodox Christians and medical schools were established there as well and again Christians combined theology and medicine as a career. The tradition of prayer for the sick continued under the Ottoman Empire and was especially used during Holy Week.
Question:
What role did Christian physicians play before the fall of Constantinople?
A. Until the time of Justinian a prominent role, and afterwards a lesser role.
B. An important role all of this time period.
C. Not a very important role before Justinian, but aferwards a very prominent role.
In Russia, in the tenth century, Christianity came through Cyril and Methodius. There was the familiar monastic healing, that is, hospitals attached to monasteries for treatment. After the fall of Constantinople and the establishment of Russia as the only free Orthodox nation, Russia looked to Western Europe for medical expertise. Peter the Great founded a medical and military hospital in Moscow in 1707 and hired a German director.
Again churchmen were attracted to study medicine and children of the clergy were accepted to study for medical careers. Tsar Nicholas I upgraded the education of physicians and established standards for medical practice. The number of physicians in the service doubled, but the Crimean War upset this system.
In the 1880's medical training was based on the Zemestov method of sanitation and prevention. In a cholera epidemic in 1892, the profession changed some of the negative attitudes of the believers to physicians. Some Orthodox priests though thought the epidemic was God's judgment and organized processions of icons to ward off the disease.
Question 1: Remembering the great heritage the whole world has in the Eastern Orthodox Church, do you think that that the Christian Church today should have a healing ministry to the whole man?
yes /
no.
Today the Orthodox Church accepts the theologically trained physician, respect for scientific medicine, trust in the healing power of God, belief in the miraculous, offering of prayers for the sick and the sacrament of healing. In the ethical teaching of the Orthodox Church, there is a continuing teaching of Christian responsibility for health care. The seminaries in Greece do not separate scientific medicine and the spiritual dimensions of life. Orthodox seminaries in the States also have this same wholistic perspective.
In the West, during the Middle Ages the pattern of healing and the training of physicians followed the pattern of the Orthodox churches in the East. Medical training was associated with the monasteries of the church where students obtained theological and medical training. With the rise of nation-states, universities were founded in the capitol cities and medical education became more of a secular nature. From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, some Italian universities allowed the entrance of women.
Today, in the West, physicians are trained in secular universities and although mention is made of miraculous healing, little attention is given to the spiritual needs of the patients by doctors.
Question 2: Do you think of the church as a place where people are made whole in all aspects of life? Why or why not?
The Judeo-Christian view
Examples of disabled persons from the Old Testament
After the Israelites came out of Egypt saved by the One True God, they and Moses were to worship Jehovah - the One True God. Therefore, God set up laws about the way in which He would be worshipped and the conditions of worship. It is important to remember that the Israelites at the time of the writing of the first five books of the Bible were in the desert, away from the amenities of any city and led by God Himself through Moses. Not only did God give conditions for worship, but also for living healthy lives. These laws are still part of the Jewish tradition today.
Another important aspect of these laws was that the Israelites would be blessed for being obedient and cursed for disobedience - see Deuteronomy 28. God promised illness and wasting diseases if the Israelites disobeyed Him. Even today, Jewish people link disease to sin. The best example of this linkage is the book of Job, which was written about two thousand years before Christ. As you recall, Job lost everything and three of his friends came to console him. Their basic premise is that the trouble of Job is due to some sin in his life. Job denies this charge and at the end of the book we see that he is vindicated.
Question 3: How did God reward the Israelites for their obedience?
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
by giving them much money,
by offering a cloud of His presence,
by giving them good health.
Returning to the laws that God gave Israel in Leviticus, we see that God is concerned with the people of Israel who are disabled in some way. The following references tell how the Israelites needed to care for them:
Leviticus 19:9 - "When you reap the harvest of your land, do not reap to the very edges of your field or gather the gleanings of your harvest. Do not go over your vineyard a second time or pick up the grapes that have fallen. Leave them for the poor and the alien. I am the Lord your God."
Question 4: Why were the people of the Old Testament to leave some of the harvest in the fields?
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
to feed the animals they owned,
to give the poor and the alien some food to harvest for themselves,
to give to the king.
Leviticus 19:14 - "Do not curse the deaf or put a stumbling block in front of the blind, but fear the Lord."
Leviticus 25:35 - "If one of your countrymen becomes poor and is unable to support himself among you, help him as you would an alien or a temporary resident, so he can continue to live among you. Do not take any interest from him, but fear your God, so that your countryman can continue to live among you."
Deuteronomy 27:19-20 - "Cursed is the man who leads a blind man astray on the road and cursed is the man who withholds justice from the alien, the fatherless and the widow."
Question 5: Why was a man cursed for lack of justice for the poor and widows?
(Only one of the following answers is correct.)
Because God is love,
Because God ordered him to be judged,
because God helps those who have troubles, so the Israelites were also to help those in trouble.
Probably one of the best-loved stories of the treatment of a disabled person is that of David and Mephibosheth. In 2 Samuel 4:4, we read how Mephibosheth was crippled by falling from his nurse's arms. After David became king over Israel, he would have killed all of Saul's remaining male offspring to ensure that he, David, remained in power. This was common practice of the day. But David remembered his promises to Jonathan in the presence of God and asked if there was anyone of the house of Saul or Jonathan that he could be kind to, see 2 Samuel 9:1-13.
Question 6: Why did David honor Mephibosheth?
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
Because of the loyalty that David and Jonathan had for one another,
Because David honored the family of former King Saul,
Because Mephibosheth had crippled feet.
Mephibosheth was brought to David and David welcomed him by saying, "Don't be afraid, for I will surely show you kindness because of your father Jonathan." Mephibosheth could hardly believe David and asks, "Why should you notice a dead dog like me?" Meophibosheth obviously felt he was not a worthy person for at least two reasons:
1) he belonged to a defeated king's family that was no longer in power in Israel, and
2) he was crippled.
However, David wished to honor him because of his father Jonathan. Mephibosheth was elevated to take part in the court and ate with the sons of David in the King's palace, 2 Samuel 9:11. Furthermore, David gave him a servant with many sons to farm land for Mephibosheth and make sure that his family would have some means of living. God gave us this wonderful example as a picture of what we need to do for those in need.
Question 7: Did David pity Mephibosheth?
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
Yes, he gave Mephibosheth everything,
No, he gave Mephibosheth the honor he deserved,
No, David gave Mephibosheth the land and people he needed to live independently.
Finally, in Deuteronomy 15:7-11, God tells His people how to react to the poor. Perhaps the most important verse is the last - "There will always be poor people in the land. Therefore, I command you to be openhanded toward your brothers and toward the poor and needy in your land." Even in the best of societies with the best of laws, life's uncertainties and mistakes make some people poor. There are also variations among citizens in intellect and skills so that in human society of all types, God commands that Israel be kind to them and help them to get what they need for life.
Examples of Christ's Ministry
Christian belief is centered in the Genesis record where it is stated by God that man is made in His image. If Christ came in the flesh and lived among men, then the human body was not evil in itself. It is the place where the Holy Spirit lives. Therefore, Jesus had compassion on those with physical and mental problems and healed them.
There are 35 recorded instances of Jesus healing the blind, lame, lepers, those with disabled limbs, and paralysis. He even raised the dead. Christ was the fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah where Messianic prophecies were written about the deaf hearing, the blind seeing, the lame walking, the mind healed of irrationality, those with speech problems speaking correctly, and to heal the broken hearted. In Matthew 11:4-5, John's disciples asked whether Jesus was the Messiah and Jesus gave his answer through the prophet Isaiah. (See Isaiah 29:17-21; 32:1-4; 35:1-7; 42:1-7).
There are some notable records of healing where Jesus teaches about the circumstances of the illness and/or the reason for healing. The first example is that of the man born blind - John 9:1-34. It was commonly accepted in the Old Testament that disease came from sin on the part of the sinner. Therefore, the question was asked, "Who sinned to cause this blindness, this man or his parents?" Jesus' reply was that God's power would be displayed in his life and the glory for the healing would go to God. In other words this man was known by God before his birth and God planned that Jesus would heal him to show that Jesus was the Messiah. The same principle was shown in John 11:3-4 at the raising of Lazarus.
The second example is that of the paralyzed man in Mark 2:1-12. Jesus said to this man when he met him that his sins were forgiven. Here is some evidence that the man was paralyzed because of sin. Jesus then healed his body. At this point the Pharisees accused Jesus of blasphemy and Jesus said, "I am the Son of Man and I have authority to forgive sin and heal people." This situation is similar to the man at the pool of Bethesda in John 5:14. Jesus says to the paralyzed man, "See, you are well again. Stop sinning or something worse may happen to you." Apparently, sin was the reason for some illnesses that Jesus healed. He healed first by forgiving the sin and then the illness.
The third example involves the compassion He had for people. An example of healing out of compassion is located in Matthew 14:14 where he healed those who had followed him into a quiet place. The same is true in Matthew 20:29-34 when he healed the blind men who recognized he was the Messiah. The blind men asked for mercy - that is, to receive their sight even though perhaps, they had received the judgment of blindness as a result of sin. Jesus did have compassion and mercy and they followed Him when they were healed.
Question 8: Jesus healed people because:
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
He had compassion for them and their illnesses,
He wanted to glorify His Father,
He loved people and wanted them to live abundant lives.
Examples from the Early Church
Henry Sigirest wrote that Christian faith was most revolutionary and decisive in the attitude of society toward the sick. Christianity came to be known as a religion of healing, as the joyful Gospel of the Redeemer and of Redemption. It addressed itself to the disinherited, to the sick and the afflicted, and promised them healing - both spiritual and physical. It became the duty of the Christian to attend to the sick and poor of the community. The position of the sick man thus became fundamentally different from what it had been before.
On several occasions, Christians demonstrated great courage in their care of the sick during outbreaks of plague that affected the Mediterranean and North Africa. They helped believers as well as the pagans. They were sometimes called "reckless ones" because of their devotion to caring for the sick during times of pestilence.
The Christian belief that humans are created in the image of God had two important consequences for the development of Christian ethics. The first is that it gave birth to Christian acts of love to others, even those outside of the faith. The New Testament is very clear that one could not claim to love God without loving one's fellow human beings - see I John 4:20-21.
Question 9: The Early Church members:
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
had compassion on the sick,
agreed to abortion, euthanasia, and infanticide,
believed that humans are created in the image of God.
It was Christian concern for all who were in need and who bore the image of God that led to the establishment of the first hospitals in the fourth century. As mentioned before, the best known was the Basileias founded by St. Basil in 372. He was the bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. Basil provided accomodations for the sick, homeless, aged, lepers, orphans and travelers. St. Basil's hospital became the model for many others that spread throughout the eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century.
The second consequence of Christian doctrine was that every soul had inherent value and should be protected and nourished since Christ died for everyone. The Greek-Roman world gave people dignity only based on citizenship, status, or virtue. Another consequence of the inherent worth of all human beings in the Early Church was condemnation of abortion, infanticide, euthanasia, and the gladiator games of the Romans.
Along with the growth of hospitals, many monks and priests of the Early Church became physicians. St. Basil wrote that Christian physicians were to be men who cured both physical and spiritual ills. Early Christian writers encouraged the sick to understand that a physician was a servant of God who worked within the order that God created. They tried to keep medicine in its place by acknowledging that all healing ultimately comes from God and that the health of the soul must have priority over the care of the body.
Question 10: The monks and priests of the Early Church:
(One or more of the following answers may be correct.)
founded hospitals,
studied medicine and became physicians,
helped the sick to understand that God only heals through faith.